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gS 0 0 538 781 rC
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3.541 .354(Process Management for)J
109 77 :M
4.083 .408(Geographical Information Systems Development)J
156 149 :M
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-.066(Stephen G. MacDonell)A
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-.054(1)A
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-.065( and George L. Benwell)A
187 173 :M
-.127(Computer and Information Science)A
222 197 :M
-.109(University of Otago)A
250 269 :M
-.235(Abstract)A
72 317 :M
.117 .012(The controlled management of software processes, an area of ongoing research in)J
72 341 :M
2.691 .269(the business systems domain, is equally important in the development of)J
72 365 :M
.01 .001(geographical information systems \(GIS\).  Appropriate software processes must be)J
72 389 :M
.487 .049(defined, used and managed in order to ensure that, as much as possible, systems)J
72 413 :M
.242 .024(are developed to quality standards on time and within budget.  However, specific)J
72 437 :M
-.05(characteristics of geographical information systems, in terms of their inherent need)A
72 461 :M
.479 .048(for graphical output, render some process management tools and techniques less)J
72 485 :M
-.115(appropriate.  This paper examines process management activities that are applicable)A
72 509 :M
.003 0(to GIS,  and suggests that it may be possible to extend such developments into the)J
72 533 :M
.952 .095(visual programming domain.  A case study concerned with development effort)J
72 557 :M
-.018(estimation is presented as a precursor to a discussion of the implications of system)A
72 581 :M
-.102(requirements for significant graphical output.)A
-4124 -4126 -1 1 -4122 -4126 1 -4124 -4127 @a
44 710.24 -.24 .24 187.24 710 .24 44 710 @a
44 723 :M
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-.032(  Address correspondence to Dr Stephen MacDonell, Department of Information Science, University of Otago,)A
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44 737 :M
.118 .012(P.O. Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand.  Fax: +64 3 479 8311  Email:  stevemac@commerce.otago.ac.nz)J
endp
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3.344 .334(Software Processes for Geographical Information Systems)J
72 129 :M
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.249 .025(A software process is a continuous set of activities oriented towards software production and)J
72 153 :M
.468 .047(evolution, from the identification of an initial concept through the analysis and definition of)J
72 177 :M
1.353 .135(requirements, design of software and other components, coding, testing, implementation,)J
72 201 :M
2.171 .217(system operation,  maintenance and enhancement, to eventual system retirement [19].)J
72 225 :M
.558 .056(Although traditionally this process was depicted as a clearly delineated sequence of distinct)J
72 249 :M
.903 .09(non-overlapping phases \(for example, see [6]\), more realistic models have since appeared.)J
72 273 :M
1.402 .14(These process models tend to show the iterative overlapping nature of activities, events,)J
72 297 :M
1.029 .103(transitions, decisions and states involved in the development of various software products)J
72 321 :M
.336([7,12].)A
72 369 :M
-.075(A development methodology for GIS is required for the efficient development of such systems.)A
72 393 :M
.581 .058(It is not apparent in the literature, or in practice, that such methodologies have been readily)J
72 417 :M
.529 .053(adopted.  This is despite the extensive application of methodological approaches commonly)J
72 441 :M
.975 .098(used in informatics.  The advances in GIS methodologies have been in realising that such)J
72 465 :M
.259 .026(systems, at least in one sense, are atypical;  they are one of the few management information)J
72 489 :M
.067 .007(systems that consolidate data originating from a number of organisations at different levels of)J
72 513 :M
1.796 .18(administration [23]. Love [13] advocated that a sound methodology was necessary and)J
72 537 :M
-.103(emphasised the importance of technical and humanistic perspectives.  There remains a problem,)A
72 561 :M
-.056(however, and that is that while such methodologies may indicate the steps or phases of work to)A
72 585 :M
-.095(be done, they do not directly measure or indicate the amount of effort required.)A
72 633 :M
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2.753 .275(Management of the Software Process)J
72 681 :M
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2.074 .207(Participants \(or \324stakeholders\325\) in the software process have differing points of focus:)J
72 705 :M
.274 .027(customers see the product as vital, as they want a system that will enable them to work more)J
72 729 :M
-.016(effectively;  developers consider the process more important, as they want to work in the most)A
72 753 :M
-.022(cost-effective manner.  In order to direct resources to both perspectives, contemporary process)A
endp
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1.341 .134(management has adopted the view that a quality software process will produce a quality)J
72 105 :M
(software product.)S
72 153 :M
-.012(Development project failure is a direct result of ineffective process management.  Some of the)A
72 177 :M
-.155(symptoms of ineffective management are:)A
72 200 :M
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-.111(insufficient communication and reporting between users and developers)A
72 224 :M
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-.124(differing expectations of system functionality)A
72 248 :M
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-.135(development in isolation of organisational aims and objectives)A
72 272 :M
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-.022(failure to assess risks, costs and benefits)A
72 296 :M
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-.106(poor estimation of effort and duration)A
72 320 :M
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-.131(development without adequate change procedures)A
72 344 :M
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-.099(short cuts in development taken as a result of schedule constraints)A
72 368 :M
f3_12 sf
(\267)S
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-.067(poor coordination among developers.)A
72 417 :M
1.026 .103(Techniques and methodologies have been proposed as \(partial\) solutions to some of these)J
72 441 :M
.644 .064(problems.  For example, the issues of insufficient communication and differing stakeholder)J
72 465 :M
1.906 .191(expectations may be overcome through the use of a prototyping process that enhances)J
72 489 :M
1.913 .191(communication.  Similarly, effective software configuration management [18] provides)J
72 513 :M
1.086 .109(appropriate change procedures for use during systems development and evolution.  These)J
72 537 :M
-.085(solutions are as applicable to the development of GIS as to any other system type.)A
72 585 :M
-.016(Another of the symptoms of project failure listed above is that of poor estimation of effort and)A
72 609 :M
-.087(duration.  This issue has been investigated in detail with particular reference to GIS.)A
72 657 :M
f2_12 sf
-.057(Case Study - Effort Estimation)A
72 705 :M
f0_12 sf
-.019(Identification and measurement of the determinants of software development effort are clearly)A
72 729 :M
-.034(desirable if the process is to be effectively managed \(as opposed to simply being observed\).  A)A
72 753 :M
.061 .006(variety of methods exist for this activity within the business systems domain, the most widely)J
endp
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1.226 .123(used being function point analysis \(FPA\) [1,20].  Use of the Mark II FPA approach [20])J
72 105 :M
.045 .005(produces as its output a number of function points - a measure of system functionality - based)J
72 129 :M
-.057(on two components:  a measure of information processing )A
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-.051(size)A
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-.059( as derived from a weighted sum)A
72 153 :M
.935 .094(of the inputs, processing and outputs of each system transaction; and an adjustment factor)J
72 177 :M
-.089(derived from the )A
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-.095(complexity)A
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-.088( of the software and the environment in which it will operate.)A
72 225 :M
1.207 .121(Within the business systems domain, the industry standard calculation of the information)J
72 249 :M
.875 .087(processing size \(generally based on transactions manipulating attributes in data models\) in)J
72 273 :M
-.047(unadjusted function points \(UFP\) is:)A
100 321 :M
.441 .044(Size in UFP = 0.58*N)J
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.415 .042( + 1.66*N)J
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.415 .042( + 0.26*N)J
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100 369 :M
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-.077(where)A
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-.158(N)A
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-.089( is the number of input data elements used in system transactions)A
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-.18(N)A
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-.101(E)A
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-.101( is the number of data entity references made by system transactions)A
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-.153(N)A
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-.102(O)A
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-.088( is the number of output data elements produced by system transactions)A
156 441 :M
-.018(the weightings 0.58, 1.66 and 0.26 have been derived from nearly 100 )A
184 465 :M
.517 .052(business systems.)J
72 513 :M
-.06(This equation therefore accounts for the )A
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-.058(relative)A
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-.062( contributions to development effort associated)A
72 537 :M
-.056(with building software components to control the formatting and validation of input and output)A
72 561 :M
-.081(data items, and the database-centred processing required to transform inputs into outputs.)A
72 609 :M
-.046(The technical complexity adjustment \(TCA\) factor is a weighted function of the sum of twenty)A
72 633 :M
1.226 .123(characteristics that assess the impact of such requirements as distributed processing, user)J
72 657 :M
-.037(training and system portability to overall system complexity \(see [20] for a fuller discussion of)A
72 681 :M
-.115(the TCA formulation\).)A
endp
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-.128(Overall adjusted system functionality in Mark II function points is therefore:)A
100 129 :M
-.073(Functionality = UFP * TCA)A
72 177 :M
1.421 .142(When development effort data is collected as part of a managed software process, those)J
72 201 :M
1.778 .178(responsible for the control of software development can begin to use FPA as an effort)J
72 225 :M
.063 .006(estimation method for future projects.  This is based on the calculation of productivity figures)J
72 249 :M
.35 .035(from recent typical projects, resulting in an average productivity rate for the organisation \(in)J
72 273 :M
.38 .038(function points per effort unit\).  The determination of an average productivity figure such as)J
72 297 :M
.587 .059(this then enables effort forecasting.  When a specification for a new system is produced, its)J
72 321 :M
.021 .002(scope can be calculated in terms of function points.  Applying the average productivity rate to)J
72 345 :M
-.097(this scope results in a prediction of overall development effort.)A
72 393 :M
.06 .006(In order to illustrate the worth of such an approach to the management of GIS development, a)J
72 417 :M
-.04(case study was conducted over a period of two years.  This study enabled a retrospective effort)A
72 441 :M
-.063(estimate to be derived for the development of a prototype Hazards Register information system)A
72 465 :M
1.215 .121([2] required by a local city council.  The system was to support local authority activities)J
72 489 :M
.786 .079(associated with the granting of building permits and resource consents.  System scope was)J
72 513 :M
.007 .001(determined based on the original requirements specification documents \(N)J
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-.09(N)A
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-.05( = 40\) and an effort estimate was determined using an industry-standard productivity rate of)A
72 561 :M
.529 .053(0.1FP/person-hour [20].  The estimate was found to be approximately 15% under the actual)J
72 585 :M
-.015(expended effort figure.  Although a lower difference would clearly be desirable, this degree of)A
72 609 :M
-.018(difference as a first-cut prediction is reasonably accurate, particularly when a limit of 30% has)A
72 633 :M
.603 .06(been suggested as adequate for estimation in the business systems environment [22].  More)J
72 657 :M
.465 .046(importantly, the FPA-based estimate compared very much more favourably that the original)J
72 681 :M
.412 .041(estimate guessed at by the developers.  Based on the results of this work, and on the lessons)J
72 705 :M
-.074(learned from it \(see the following sub-section\), further case studies are about to begin.)A
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-.071(Lessons Learned)A
72 129 :M
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1.342 .134(Although the case study effectively demonstrated the potential of a process management)J
72 153 :M
1.51 .151(technique such as FPA in the GIS domain, it also highlighted some specific differences)J
72 177 :M
1.063 .106(between business systems and GIS that have implications for process management in this)J
72 201 :M
-.057(environment.  In particular, the inappropriateness of the relative weightings associated with the)A
72 225 :M
-.075(components of )A
f2_12 sf
-.072(business)A
f0_12 sf
-.072( system transactions became apparent.)A
72 273 :M
-.021(The component weightings are normally calibrated to each development environment, so as to)A
72 297 :M
2.753 .275(ensure that scope assessment and subsequent effort predictions are relevant to each)J
72 321 :M
-.087(environment.  The case study briefly described above, however, had no historical data available)A
72 345 :M
-.044(to enable calibration and consequently the business-oriented standard weightings were initially)A
72 369 :M
-.078(adopted.  Clearly, however, relevant figures obtained from GIS development could be expected)A
72 393 :M
1.684 .168(to be more useful.  Two approaches were therefore made \(several months apart\) to the)J
72 417 :M
.347 .035(recipients of the GIS-L listserver, the international mail server for those interested in the use)J
72 441 :M
.533 .053(and development of GIS, in an attempt to obtain actual project data from GIS-based system)J
72 465 :M
.828 .083(developers.  Disappointingly but not unexpectedly, these requests produced a nil response.)J
72 489 :M
-.072(This may be simply a reflection of the reluctance of developers to provide systems for analysis.)A
72 513 :M
1.497 .15(It is equally as likely, however, that developers simply did not have the data requested,)J
72 537 :M
.007 .001(particularly in terms of effort records, as this unfortunately remains a common situation in the)J
72 561 :M
-.076(systems development domain.)A
72 609 :M
.815 .081(A different approach was then tried.  A new request to GIS-L asked developers to rate the)J
72 633 :M
2.556 .256(difficulty associated with code design and development for the three components of)J
72 657 :M
1.409 .141(transactions in a GIS environment.  This request produced twenty-seven responses, with)J
72 681 :M
.458 .046(overall weightings proving to be quite different from those obtained in the business systems)J
72 705 :M
-.081(domain \(see Table 1\).)A
endp
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72 81 :M
f1_12 sf
(Table 1.)S
f0_12 sf
.006 .001(  Differences in component weightings for business and spatial systems)J
267 132 :M
-.082(Input)A
346 132 :M
.058(Process)A
433 132 :M
-.266(Output)A
96 109 -1 1 99 108 1 96 108 @a
-1 -1 97 111 1 1 96 108 @b
-1 -1 99 111 1 1 98 110 @b
-1 -1 99 111 1 1 98 110 @b
99 109 -1 1 235 108 1 99 108 @a
99 111 -1 1 235 110 1 99 110 @a
235 109 -1 1 238 108 1 235 108 @a
235 111 -1 1 238 110 1 235 110 @a
238 109 -1 1 321 108 1 238 108 @a
238 111 -1 1 321 110 1 238 110 @a
321 109 -1 1 324 108 1 321 108 @a
321 111 -1 1 324 110 1 321 110 @a
324 109 -1 1 406 108 1 324 108 @a
324 111 -1 1 406 110 1 324 110 @a
406 109 -1 1 409 108 1 406 108 @a
406 111 -1 1 409 110 1 406 110 @a
409 109 -1 1 490 108 1 409 108 @a
409 111 -1 1 490 110 1 409 110 @a
490 109 -1 1 493 108 1 490 108 @a
-1 -1 493 111 1 1 492 108 @b
-1 -1 491 111 1 1 490 110 @b
-1 -1 491 111 1 1 490 110 @b
-1 -1 97 135 1 1 96 111 @b
-1 -1 99 135 1 1 98 111 @b
-1 -1 236 135 1 1 235 111 @b
-1 -1 238 135 1 1 237 111 @b
-1 -1 322 135 1 1 321 111 @b
-1 -1 407 135 1 1 406 111 @b
-1 -1 491 135 1 1 490 111 @b
-1 -1 493 135 1 1 492 111 @b
102 159 :M
-.069(Weighting - Business)A
296 159 :M
.333(0.58)A
381 159 :M
.333(1.66)A
466 159 :M
.333(0.26)A
-1 -1 99 138 1 1 98 135 @b
-1 -1 97 138 1 1 96 135 @b
99 136 -1 1 235 135 1 99 135 @a
99 138 -1 1 235 137 1 99 137 @a
-1 -1 238 136 1 1 237 135 @b
-1 -1 236 138 1 1 235 137 @b
-1 -1 236 136 1 1 235 135 @b
-1 -1 238 138 1 1 237 137 @b
238 136 -1 1 321 135 1 238 135 @a
238 138 -1 1 321 137 1 238 137 @a
321 136 -1 1 324 135 1 321 135 @a
321 138 -1 1 324 137 1 321 137 @a
324 136 -1 1 406 135 1 324 135 @a
324 138 -1 1 406 137 1 324 137 @a
406 136 -1 1 409 135 1 406 135 @a
406 138 -1 1 409 137 1 406 137 @a
409 136 -1 1 490 135 1 409 135 @a
409 138 -1 1 490 137 1 409 137 @a
-1 -1 493 138 1 1 492 135 @b
-1 -1 491 138 1 1 490 135 @b
-1 -1 97 162 1 1 96 138 @b
-1 -1 99 162 1 1 98 138 @b
-1 -1 236 162 1 1 235 138 @b
-1 -1 238 162 1 1 237 138 @b
-1 -1 322 162 1 1 321 138 @b
-1 -1 407 162 1 1 406 138 @b
-1 -1 491 162 1 1 490 138 @b
-1 -1 493 162 1 1 492 138 @b
102 184 :M
-.165(Weighting - Spatial)A
296 184 :M
.333(0.81)A
381 184 :M
.333(0.84)A
466 184 :M
.333(0.85)A
-1 -1 99 163 1 1 98 162 @b
-1 -1 97 163 1 1 96 162 @b
99 163 -1 1 235 162 1 99 162 @a
-1 -1 238 163 1 1 237 162 @b
-1 -1 236 163 1 1 235 162 @b
238 163 -1 1 321 162 1 238 162 @a
-1 -1 322 163 1 1 321 162 @b
322 163 -1 1 406 162 1 322 162 @a
-1 -1 407 163 1 1 406 162 @b
407 163 -1 1 490 162 1 407 162 @a
-1 -1 493 163 1 1 492 162 @b
-1 -1 491 163 1 1 490 162 @b
-1 -1 97 187 1 1 96 163 @b
-1 -1 99 187 1 1 98 163 @b
96 190 -1 1 99 189 1 96 189 @a
-1 -1 97 190 1 1 96 187 @b
-1 -1 99 188 1 1 98 187 @b
-1 -1 99 188 1 1 98 187 @b
99 188 -1 1 235 187 1 99 187 @a
99 190 -1 1 235 189 1 99 189 @a
-1 -1 236 187 1 1 235 163 @b
-1 -1 238 187 1 1 237 163 @b
235 188 -1 1 238 187 1 235 187 @a
235 190 -1 1 238 189 1 235 189 @a
238 188 -1 1 321 187 1 238 187 @a
238 190 -1 1 321 189 1 238 189 @a
-1 -1 322 187 1 1 321 163 @b
321 188 -1 1 324 187 1 321 187 @a
321 190 -1 1 324 189 1 321 189 @a
324 188 -1 1 406 187 1 324 187 @a
324 190 -1 1 406 189 1 324 189 @a
-1 -1 407 187 1 1 406 163 @b
406 188 -1 1 409 187 1 406 187 @a
406 190 -1 1 409 189 1 406 189 @a
409 188 -1 1 490 187 1 409 187 @a
409 190 -1 1 490 189 1 409 189 @a
-1 -1 491 187 1 1 490 163 @b
-1 -1 493 187 1 1 492 163 @b
490 190 -1 1 493 189 1 490 189 @a
-1 -1 493 190 1 1 492 187 @b
-1 -1 491 188 1 1 490 187 @b
-1 -1 491 188 1 1 490 187 @b
72 235 :M
-.072(Although the weightings are based on anecdotal rather than empirical evidence, it is considered)A
72 259 :M
-.1(that they are still likely to be more appropriate than the business system weightings, particularly)A
72 283 :M
.374 .037(as the differences are quite significant.  In the calculation of system scope for the case study)J
72 307 :M
1.084 .108(described above, then, it was the set of spatial weightings that was used.  Comments that)J
72 331 :M
.45 .045(accompanied developer ratings reiterated these results - many respondents further suggested)J
72 355 :M
-.016(that the values for output would be substantially different depending on whether output was to)A
72 379 :M
-.114(be textual or graphical.)A
72 427 :M
-.132(As a result of the above research it has been concluded that there is insufficient data available on)A
72 451 :M
.047 .005(GIS effort and factors that influence its determination.  There is a lack of data models, system)J
72 475 :M
.571 .057(design documentation, data upon which to determine, adjust or modify the weights, nor has)J
72 499 :M
-.077(there been adequate investigation of other factors that may influence GIS measurement.  It may)A
72 523 :M
1.429 .143(be important to understand such variables as map components, number of layers, colour)J
72 547 :M
.755 .076(options, and graphical versus textual elements.  These issues will require attention if effort)J
72 571 :M
-.127(estimation figures are to achieve any level of acceptance in GIS circles.)A
72 619 :M
f1_12 sf
2.287 .229(Current Research)J
72 667 :M
f0_12 sf
.936 .094(Some of the conclusions reached as a result of the case study described above have wider)J
72 691 :M
-.074(implications.  In particular, requirements for graphical output from any system type \(that is, not)A
72 715 :M
-.088(only GIS\) may demand reformulation of techniques for effort estimation.)A
endp
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-.126(Wider Implications - Effort Metrics for Graphical Output Software Development)A
72 129 :M
f0_12 sf
-.005(With the advancement of graphical capabilities in terms of information presented on screen or)A
72 153 :M
-.012(paper, computer systems are able to provide extensive graphical information of value to users.)A
72 177 :M
.589 .059(For example, business data on market shares can be presented in a pie chart, scientific time)J
72 201 :M
-.028(series trends on tidal variations can be illustrated in line plots, real-time changes in river levels)A
72 225 :M
.977 .098(can be shown as screen-based scale models, and population densities can be depicted in a)J
72 249 :M
.449 .045(choropleth map.  Multimedia systems, by their very nature, make extensive use of graphical)J
72 273 :M
1.837 .184(components such as images, animations and video clips. The question of interest here,)J
72 297 :M
-.015(however, is what does the picture cost?  That is, is it possible to measure, calibrate and predict)A
72 321 :M
1.234 .123(the effort required of developer\(s\) to create the software that provides this graphic-based)J
72 345 :M
.107 .011(output?  A related question is:  is the effort devoted to the development of software to control)J
72 369 :M
-.103(output different than that required for the software that handles input and processing?)A
72 417 :M
.204 .02(Work oriented towards effort assessment specifically oriented towards software for graphical)J
72 441 :M
-.054(output is not extensive, for a number of reasons:)A
72 465 :M
(\245)S
90 465 :M
-.02(in the past the only option for output \(particularly screen-based\) was in the form of text, as)A
90 489 :M
-.13(hardware limitations restricted the use of graphical output)A
72 513 :M
(\245)S
90 513 :M
.006 .001(software metrics have tended to give little or no consideration to the )J
f2_12 sf
(form)S
f0_12 sf
( of the output, as)S
90 537 :M
-.07(the )A
f2_12 sf
-.078(quantity)A
f0_12 sf
-.078( of information presented was considered to be more important \(e.g. see [20]\))A
72 561 :M
(\245)S
90 561 :M
1.898 .19(the rise of spatial information systems and multimedia systems, with their inherent)J
90 585 :M
-.106(dependence on graphical output, has been a relatively recent phenomenon.)A
72 633 :M
-.071(Thus assessment of development costs from the perspective of output has been concentrated on)A
72 657 :M
.947 .095(the )J
f2_12 sf
.45(amount)A
f0_12 sf
1.346 .135( of data reported.  This has been quantified under some counting schemes as)J
72 681 :M
-.062(measures of the number of data items reported per screen, or the number of fields and headings)A
72 705 :M
.699 .07(per report.  Measures of this type are certainly acknowledged as important.  It is suggested)J
72 729 :M
.177 .018(here, however, that the )J
f2_12 sf
.057(form)A
f0_12 sf
.152 .015( of reporting is likely to have a further impact on both the cost of)J
72 753 :M
-.009(development and the \324value\325 of the output to the recipient.  Some work investigating the value)A
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72 81 :M
-.033(aspect has been undertaken, with several studies dealing specifically with comparisons of text-)A
72 105 :M
1.954 .195(based and graphically-based representations [4].  Related areas of research are also of)J
72 129 :M
.364 .036(relevance, particularly those examining map complexity [14,15], screen-based widget layout)J
72 153 :M
.365 .037([17,21] and usability analysis [5].  As far as can be determined, however, empirical effort or)J
72 177 :M
-.049(cost determinations and comparisons for such environments are yet to be examined.  Given the)A
72 201 :M
.871 .087(increasing use of graphically-oriented software systems it is felt that a significant research)J
72 225 :M
-.072(opportunity exists.  As the next step in this research, variations on the FPA approach to provide)A
72 249 :M
-.072(greater relevance to geographical systems is now discussed.)A
72 297 :M
f2_12 sf
-.162(Component Weightings and Data Collection)A
72 345 :M
f0_12 sf
-.084(Given the findings of the case study it would appear that the component weightings adopted for)A
72 369 :M
2.042 .204(the calculation of business system scope in Mark II FPA are indeed inappropriate for)J
72 393 :M
2.329 .233(geographical information systems.  The anecdotal evidence indicates that the relative)J
72 417 :M
.876 .088(contributions of input, processing and output are much closer than is the case for business)J
72 441 :M
.669 .067(systems and that, in general, the development of code to control input and output in spatial)J
72 465 :M
-.037(systems is more difficult than for business systems.  In fact, the dominance of input and output)A
72 489 :M
-.106(is made even more significant by the fact that the actual values of N)A
f0_9 sf
0 2 rm
-.067(I)A
0 -2 rm
f0_12 sf
-.119( and N)A
f0_9 sf
0 2 rm
-.145(O)A
0 -2 rm
f0_12 sf
-.123( are normally much)A
72 513 :M
-.092(higher than that for N)A
f0_9 sf
0 2 rm
-.107(E)A
0 -2 rm
f0_12 sf
-.093(.  This is due to the fact that the input and output measures are concerned)A
72 537 :M
.978 .098(with numbers of data items manipulated, whereas the processing measure considers entity)J
72 561 :M
.118 .012(accesses.  In most management information and decision support systems, within which class)J
72 585 :M
1.036 .104(business and geographical information systems fall, the number of data items used in and)J
72 609 :M
-.037(produced by the system, in terms of screen-based data entry and soft- and hard-copy reporting,)A
72 633 :M
.217 .022(is greater than the number of entity accesses required in processing.  If the case study figures)J
72 657 :M
-.052(are adopted an illustrative comparison of the contribution to scope of each component type can)A
72 681 :M
-.025(be performed, as follows:)A
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72 81 :M
-.033(Business weightings: )A
312 81 :M
-.129(Spatial weightings:)A
100 105 :M
-.046(Input - )A
178 105 :M
.267 .027(0.58*71 = 41 \(54%\))J
342 105 :M
-.046(Input - )A
408 105 :M
.267 .027(0.81*71 = 57 \(55%\))J
100 129 :M
(Processing - )S
178 129 :M
.267 .027(1.66*15 = 25 \(33%\))J
341 129 :M
(Processing - )S
408 129 :M
.267 .027(0.84*15 = 13 \(13%\))J
100 153 :M
-.189(Output -)A
178 153 :M
.267 .027(0.26*40 = 10 \(13%\))J
341 153 :M
-.166(Output - )A
408 153 :M
.267 .027(0.85*40 = 34 \(32%\))J
72 201 :M
.051 .005(In this case, the absolute contributions to system scope \(and ultimately to development effort\))J
72 225 :M
.417 .042(of software development for processing and output are virtually reversed, indicating that the)J
72 249 :M
.621 .062(development of software for output control is particularly more difficult for spatial systems)J
72 273 :M
-.096(whilst the development of processing code may be less influential.)A
72 321 :M
-.086(In order to more accurately determine appropriate weightings data )A
f2_12 sf
-.1(must)A
f0_12 sf
-.085( be collected as a matter)A
72 345 :M
.154 .015(of course within a process management framework.  This requires a level of process maturity)J
72 369 :M
.849 .085(currently beyond some organisations, but is acknowledged as one of the necessary steps if)J
72 393 :M
.812 .081(software processes are to be improved [3].  There exists a cycle of avoidance that must be)J
72 417 :M
.434 .043(overcome if appropriate weightings, and consequently more accurate measures of scope and)J
72 441 :M
.287 .029(effort, are to be obtained.  This cycle has at one point developers and managers who will not)J
72 465 :M
1.165 .117(use measures and models \(such as FPA\) as they are not convinced of their worth.  If the)J
72 489 :M
.018 .002(measures and models are not used, then there is no point in collecting the relevant data.  If the)J
72 513 :M
.02 .002(data is not collected, the worth of the measures and models cannot be assessed.  Clearly, then,)J
72 537 :M
.195 .02(goal-based data collection must be undertaken as a first step to enable more effective process)J
72 561 :M
-.131(management.)A
72 609 :M
f2_12 sf
.41 .041(Input Assessment)J
72 657 :M
f0_12 sf
-.041(The impact on software development effort specifically related to code built for handling input)A
72 681 :M
.953 .095(processing in spatial systems is likely to be similar to that applicable to business systems.)J
72 705 :M
1.258 .126(Query handling, data entry processing and associated validation procedures are generally)J
72 729 :M
-.086(required irrespective of system type.  It may be that some adjustment is needed to cope with the)A
72 753 :M
.386 .039(input and maintenance of spatially referenced data, particularly where this requires input via)J
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-.047(digitising.  However, the process of data collection/acquisition in the spatial systems domain is)A
72 105 :M
-.103(a distinct area of research and practice and is therefore not expressly considered here.  Attention)A
72 129 :M
.862 .086(in this work is directed to the querying and manipulation of existing data to obtain textual)J
72 153 :M
-.085(and/or graphical output.)A
72 201 :M
f2_12 sf
(Processing Assessment)S
72 249 :M
f0_12 sf
.788 .079(The processing of data from a database involves the programs that extract, manipulate and)J
72 273 :M
-.029(deposit data from and in a database.  In the case of a GIS it can be assumed that there are three)A
72 297 :M
.284 .028(basic forms for a data repository.  First, is that which supports a raster format where the data)J
72 321 :M
.999 .1(will be stored in a tree structure or even in very flat ASCII files.  Second, is the standard)J
72 345 :M
-.074(relational model \(here implied to include object oriented paradigms\) which would include most)A
72 369 :M
.825 .083(contemporary systems.  Third, is the advanced relational models and the emerging \324spatial)J
72 393 :M
.995 .1(database structures\325 such a Oracle7 MultiDimension and developments in spatial database)J
72 417 :M
-.059(engines soon to appear from the leading vendors.  When these structures are compared to those)A
72 441 :M
-.005(used in business applications there is little to no difference.  All three structures above may be)A
72 465 :M
.517 .052(used in a purely business environment \(that is, one which is less graphically oriented\).  It is)J
72 489 :M
-.016(therefore not considered that significant changes will be required in the processing component)A
72 513 :M
1.52 .152(of the assessment and estimation process as described previously.  Notwithstanding this)J
72 537 :M
-.038(conclusion, there are two points that need further discussion.  First is the relative difficulties of)A
72 561 :M
.907 .091(using raster or vector representations of reality and second, is the advances being made in)J
72 585 :M
-.135(spatial data modelling.)A
72 633 :M
.035 .003(The choice of a raster or vector structure will affect both the effort required to create a system)J
72 657 :M
.399 .04(and the fidelity of its representation of reality.  If could be argued that a raster-based system)J
72 681 :M
.12 .012(will require far less effort but will not represent reality as accurately as a vector system.  This)J
72 705 :M
1.019 .102(argument starts to diverge from the theme at hand.  But, while that is true, the estimation)J
72 729 :M
.17 .017(formula is not about accuracy, it is about effort.  If the raster form takes less effort then so be)J
72 753 :M
-.084(it.  The formula will reflect the lower effort, the user must understand and justify the fidelity.)A
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.371 .037(Advances in spatial data modelling will impact on the determination of processing scope \(as)J
72 129 :M
1.129 .113(measured in FPA with N)J
f0_9 sf
0 2 rm
.323(E)A
0 -2 rm
f0_12 sf
1.034 .103(\).  Research by Firns [11] and Feuchtwanger [10] have laid the)J
72 153 :M
1.712 .171(foundations for new data modelling formalisms.  This will bring about some degree of)J
72 177 :M
-.009(divergence from \324the standard\325 models used in business [9].   This will do no more than create)A
72 201 :M
-.046(a modified \324spatial\325 version of the UFP formula which, after all, was the intention.  If there is a)A
72 225 :M
1.042 .104(requirement to convert between formula models then additional research will be required.)J
72 249 :M
-.041(Presently, there seems no reason or justification for such conversions.)A
72 297 :M
f2_12 sf
(Output Assessment)S
72 345 :M
f0_12 sf
.241 .024(The significant difference between a \324traditional\325 system and a GIS is the form of the output.)J
72 369 :M
1.281 .128(Regardless of whether the GIS is raster or vector, a significant amount of output will be)J
72 393 :M
1.293 .129(graphical.  While this is stated to be a significant difference it is acknowledged that this)J
72 417 :M
1.223 .122(difference will diminish as programming and/or display concepts generally become more)J
72 441 :M
1.239 .124(graphical.  This trend is now observable and rapidly expanding with tools such as visual)J
72 465 :M
.448 .045(programming, multimedia and the world wide web.  It is fair to say the amount of graphical)J
72 489 :M
.15 .015(programming and display will increase.  It is with this background that the output component)J
72 513 :M
-.1(of the estimation formula is examined in the context of GIS.)A
72 561 :M
.541 .054(It is true to say that GIS output is mostly graphical, though textual output is also important.)J
72 585 :M
.722 .072(After all, some maps may be no more than appropriate placement of textual attributes on a)J
72 609 :M
1.101 .11(screen.  In order to understand the effort required to produce these graphical outputs it is)J
72 633 :M
.355 .035(considered appropriate to examine the literature relating to map complexity  [8,15,16].  Map)J
72 657 :M
-.002(complexity, according to Monmonier, relates to the number of map elements which result in a)A
72 681 :M
.093 .009(pattern that \324appears to be intricate or involved\325.  In the context of this paper that definition is)J
72 705 :M
1.176 .118(inappropriate.  For example,  given the same data \(that is the same entities and the same)J
72 729 :M
.582 .058(database retrieval\) there are any number of different visual complexities.  The thrust of this)J
72 753 :M
-.139(paper is more related to the complexity as it relates to the number of map elements and the effort)A
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.276 .028(required to place them on a screen or hard copy output.  The \324map complexity\325 is therefore a)J
72 105 :M
-.029(function of entities and effort of placement, not intricacy or difficulty in understanding.  These)A
72 129 :M
-.065(are certainly very important factors to be considered in the design of a GIS, but here it has little)A
72 153 :M
-.025(direct impact on effort.  Nonetheless, there will be, intuitively at least, some degree of positive)A
72 177 :M
.074 .007(correlation between an intricate map and large effort. \(excluding the novice cartographer who)J
72 201 :M
-.142(takes no time at all to create the most horrid and intricate map\).)A
72 249 :M
.306 .031(It is suggested that, when effort is involved, the following will be the important factors to be)J
72 273 :M
-.109(considered in the measurement of graphical output from a GIS:)A
72 297 :M
(\245)S
100 297 :M
f2_12 sf
.813 .081(the number of discrete graphical entities)J
f0_12 sf
.656 .066(;  this is more concerned with measuring the)J
100 321 :M
1.187 .119(number of separate entities such as height, hydrology etc rather than the number of)J
100 345 :M
-.024(contours or the number of rivers.  In addition it is not concerned with the number of data)A
100 369 :M
-.03(points per contour \(or river, as examples\).)A
72 393 :M
(\245)S
100 393 :M
f2_12 sf
-.08(the style of the output)A
f0_12 sf
-.082(;  is it a line drawing, a filled polygonal rendition or a solid model.)A
72 417 :M
(\245)S
100 417 :M
f2_12 sf
-.128(the nature of the output;)A
f0_12 sf
-.12(  is the output static in place or position and is it a still or video.)A
72 441 :M
(\245)S
100 441 :M
f2_12 sf
-.125(the cartographic completeness of the map;)A
f0_12 sf
-.115(  is the output crude or is it of high cartographic)A
100 465 :M
-.047(quality.)A
72 513 :M
.398 .04(Any effort estimation formula will need to consider the influence of these and perhaps other)J
72 537 :M
-.109(spatial concepts at the output stage.)A
72 585 :M
f1_12 sf
.8(Conclusions)A
72 633 :M
f0_12 sf
1.773 .177(Research to date in process management for GIS suggests that, whilst similar software)J
72 657 :M
.54 .054(processes or even sub-processes may be required for business and spatial systems, there are)J
72 681 :M
.246 .025(some characteristics particular to GIS that make current techniques for effort estimation \(and)J
72 705 :M
-.09(perhaps other process management activities\) inappropriate.  The results obtained from the case)A
72 729 :M
-.027(study highlighted the distinction between spatial and business systems, particularly in terms of)A
72 753 :M
-.076(the impact on effort associated with the development of code required to control system output.)A
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-.009(Although some progress has been made towards determining the causes of or reasons for such)A
72 105 :M
1.303 .13(distinctions it is clear that further research is needed in order to more fully ascertain the)J
72 129 :M
.807 .081(determinants of development effort in the GIS domain.  Moreover, it is suggested that this)J
72 153 :M
-.039(research may become more widely applicable, given the ongoing move to graphically-oriented)A
72 177 :M
-.075(systems such as multimedia systems and visual programming environments.)A
72 225 :M
f1_12 sf
.672(References)A
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